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is a corrected, consolidated report.\n\n## Final report: Smith, Barnett, and Kinsella’s TTTC\n\nThe basic correction is this: **Kinsella’s title-transfer theory is not a theory of contractual obligation at all.** On his view, contracts do **not** create legally enforceable duties, are **not** binding promises, and do **not** generate anything properly called “breach of contract.” Instead, contracts are best understood as **conditional transfers of title to owned resources**. When a specified event occurs, title shifts; when it does not, it does not. What conventional lawyers call “damages for breach” is, in this framework, at most a prearranged or triggered title transfer that serves a similar practical function, but it is not damages for breach because there is no breach to begin with. fileciteturn1file3turn2file7turn2file17\n\nWith that correction in place, the relationships among the theories become much clearer.\n\n### 1. Smith’s theory\n\nStephen A. Smith is working squarely within mainstream contract theory. In both *Towards a Theory of Contract* and *Contract Theory*, he treats the central analytic question as the nature of contractual obligation, and his answer is the orthodox one: contracts are promises, or something very close to promises. At the start of *Towards a Theory of Contract*, he says the analytic answer he will defend is “the traditional or orthodox answer that contracts are promises or something closely akin to promises.” fileciteturn3file0\n\nHe also defines the promissory view in straightforward terms. On p. 108 of *Towards a Theory of Contract*, he says: “contractual obligations are obligations that individuals place upon themselves,” and “a promise is created by communicating an intention to undertake an obligation.” fileciteturn3file1\n\nSo Smith’s theory is a **promissory, self-imposed-obligation theory**. Contract, for him, is part of the law of voluntary undertakings. Even where he wants to understand contract through property theory, he still wants to preserve the distinct category of **obligation**.\n\n### 2. Barnett’s theory\n\nBarnett moves away from promise toward consent and rights-transfer. He argues that contract law is part of a broader theory of entitlements and that what matters is not promise as such but **consent to the legal transfer of rights**. He says a consent theory understands contract as part of a system that identifies when entitlements are “validly transferred from person to person by their consent.” fileciteturn1file10turn2file18\n\nBarnett is therefore much closer to a property-rights framework than Smith is. But Barnett still speaks the language of contractual obligation, remedies, and breach. He reinterprets them, but he does not abolish them.\n\n### 3. Kinsella’s TTTC\n\nKinsella goes further than Barnett. He does not merely redescribe contractual obligation in entitlement terms. He argues that the whole conventional framework of “binding promise,” “contractual obligation,” and “breach” is conceptually mistaken. On his view, “all contractual obligations really boil down to an obligation to give,” and that conventional language is misleading because the legal effect is just a transfer of title to owned things. More strongly, he concludes that “there is no such thing as contract breach,” because contracts are “not enforceable or binding promises but merely title transfers.” fileciteturn2file7turn2file12\n\nSo the corrected way to state TTTC is:\n\n- not “obligations are property allocations,” but rather:\n- **contracts are not obligations at all; they are title transfers or conditional title transfers**. fileciteturn2file7turn2file12turn2file17\n\nAnd not “breach leads to recognition of ownership or restitution,” but rather:\n- **there is no breach; there are only ownership consequences when agreed conditions occur or fail to occur**. fileciteturn2file12turn2file17\n\nThat is the key correction.\n\n## 4. How Smith compares to Kinsella\n\nSmith and Kinsella are therefore not just offering rival answers to the same question. They are, in an important sense, answering **different questions**.\n\nSmith asks: what kind of obligation is a contractual obligation, and why should the law enforce it? fileciteturn3file0turn3file1\n\nKinsella’s TTTC says: that is already the wrong starting point, because contracts do not create enforceable obligations in the first place. The real question is how owners can structure present or future **title transfers** by consent. fileciteturn2file7turn2file12turn2file17\n\nSo Smith remains inside the conventional conceptual scheme; Kinsella rejects that scheme and reconstructs contract from property law outward.\n\n## 5. Places where Smith comes surprisingly close to TTTC\n\nEven though Smith ultimately remains promissory, he repeatedly notices things that point toward a title-transfer or property-based theory.\n\nThe clearest statement comes on p. 1 of *Towards a Theory of Contract*, where he says: “contract is like property.” He adds that to understand contract better, “we should turn … to property theory.” fileciteturn3file0\n\nThat is not TTTC, but it is very close to the TTTC starting point.\n\nA second striking passage is on p. 62 of *Contract Theory*, where Smith explicitly says one possible route would be to “abandon the exclusive focus on promises” and explain contract law as dealing with acts intended to change one’s normative relations, including “consensual … transfers of property.” He then rejects that move because he wants to distinguish “an interest in controlling property” from “an interest in undertaking obligations.” fileciteturn2file1\n\nThat is almost a statement of the path toward TTTC, followed immediately by a retreat back to promissory theory.\n\nA third passage is on p. 125 of *Towards a Theory of Contract*, where he says a plausible theory must explain how contract creates “a present right” that “is owned by its beneficiary” and becomes part of the beneficiary’s “present wealth,” like a house or other property. fileciteturn2file9\n\nAgain, this is not TTTC, but it is very close to a property analysis of contractual positions.\n\n## 6. The anti-promise objection Smith states\n\nYou asked specifically for the place where Smith formulates the classic anti-promise objection in a way resembling Evers and Rothbard. He does this most clearly in *Towards a Theory of Contract*.\n\nOn p. 109 he states the core objection in very direct terms. He says: “Enforcing promises qua promises” is the objection, and he says this is “inconsistent with J.S. Mill’s harm principle.” fileciteturn3file1\n\nOn p. 110 he sharpens it. He says that if a promise is enforced merely as a promise, then the content of the obligation may be “a pure or partial obligation to benefit another,” and that enforcing such an obligation is “like enforcing charity.” He then says: “Enforcing promises is enforcing morality as such.” fileciteturn3file1\n\nThat is a very strong anti-promissory statement. It is not yet TTTC, but it is in the same family of objections: the law cannot simply take a moral undertaking and make it legally binding as such.\n\nThen comes the especially revealing passage on p. 111, where Smith summarizes Fried’s question: “How is it possible ‘that by my words I should make wrong what before was morally indifferent’?” fileciteturn3file1\n\nThat is very close to the Rothbard/Evers/Kinsella line of thought. Their answer is: you cannot create a legally enforceable claim merely by uttering promissory words. What can happen is that an owner consents to transfer title, presently or conditionally. Smith does not draw that conclusion, but he states the problem in a form that strongly invites it. fileciteturn2file7turn2file12\n\nA related passage, also important, is on p. 125 of *Towards a Theory of Contract*, where Smith describes the objection to promissory theories as the idea that they involve “a magical sleight of hand, whereby something is created out of nothing.” fileciteturn2file9\n\nThat is about as close as one can get to the classic anti-promise objection without actually adopting TTTC. The TTTC answer to that objection is that nothing is created out of nothing: the legal effect arises from an owner’s consensual structuring of title to resources he already owns. fileciteturn2file7turn2file12\n\n## 7. Does Smith show familiarity with Rothbard, Evers, Kinsella, or Barnett?\n\nThere is no indication in the material you uploaded that Smith engages Rothbard, Evers, or Kinsella. He does not appear to know or discuss the libertarian title-transfer theory tradition. His discussion is within mainstream Anglo-American contract theory. fileciteturn3file0turn3file1\n\nHe is, however, discussing problems and alternatives that overlap with Barnett’s terrain. He explicitly recognizes “transfers” as one possible answer to the analytic question, noting that theorists might disagree whether contractual obligations arise from “promises, reliance, or transfers.” fileciteturn2file3\n\nSo Smith is aware of the conceptual possibility of a transfer-based theory. But he does not adopt it, and there is no sign here that he engages the specific libertarian property-title version.\n\n## 8. How Kinsella would likely respond to Smith\n\nKinsella’s response would likely be that Smith is perceptive about the problems with promissory theory but stops short of the correct conclusion.\n\nHe would likely agree with Smith’s recognition that contract must be understood in relation to property. He would also likely agree with Smith’s formulation of the anti-promise objection: the law cannot just convert morality into enforceable obligation, and it cannot conjure legal rights by verbal magic alone. fileciteturn3file0turn3file1turn2file9\n\nBut Kinsella would say that Smith retreats too quickly to the conventional framework of “self-imposed obligation.” The proper next step is not to refine promissory theory but to discard it. The right reconstruction is:\n\n- contract is not promise,\n- not obligation,\n- not breach,\n- but consensual title transfer. fileciteturn2file7turn2file12turn2file17\n\nIn that sense, Smith repeatedly approaches the edge of TTTC but refuses to cross it.\n\n## 9. Bottom line\n\nThe most accurate overall summary is this:\n\nSmith is a sophisticated defender of a **promissory theory of contract**. He treats contracts as self-imposed obligations and tries to justify them, in significant part, through analogy to property. fileciteturn3file0turn3file1\n\nBarnett shifts the discussion toward **consensual transfer of rights** within a general entitlement structure. fileciteturn1file10turn2file18\n\nKinsella’s TTTC is more radical than both. It does not reinterpret contractual obligation; it **rejects the category**. Contracts, on that view, do not create legally enforceable obligations, are not binding promises, and cannot be breached. They are conditional title transfers whose consequences may resemble conventional damages but are not damages for breach. fileciteturn2file7turn2file12turn2file17\n\nAnd the most revealing Smith passages for your purposes are these:\n\n- p. 1: “contract is like property.” fileciteturn3file0\n- p. 109: “Enforcing promises qua promises” is objectionable and “inconsistent with J.S. Mill’s harm principle.” fileciteturn3file1\n- p. 110: enforcing promises is “like enforcing charity” and “enforcing morality as such.” fileciteturn3file1\n- p. 111: how can words “make wrong what before was morally indifferent”? fileciteturn3file1\n- p. 125: promissory theories seem to involve “a magical sleight of hand, whereby something is created out of nothing.” fileciteturn2file9\n- p. 62: contract law could instead be understood to include “consensual … transfers of property.” fileciteturn2file1\n\nThose are the passages where Smith comes closest both to the **property turn** and to the **anti-promise critique** that points toward TTTC.\n\nIf you want, I can next turn this into a tighter publishable memo, with footnote-style citations and cleaner prose.","role","assistant",{},"13ae5ad7-0e9d-48d5-bc0a-f76a6d427b4b",{"_399":475,"_156":476,"_89":477},1773491923.4385977,{"_395":426,"_396":427},{"_407":408,"_409":58,"_410":199,"_352":88,"_411":412,"_413":414,"_415":416,"_417":418,"_103":104,"_419":58,"_420":58,"_105":106,"_107":108,"_109":110,"_111":112,"_114":421},"command","mclick","is_visually_hidden_from_conversation","retrieval_turn_number","connectors_file_search",{"_422":423,"_424":425},"reasoning_status","is_reasoning","classifier_response","default","reasoning_start_time",1773491616.7574456,"hide_inline_actions","disable_turn_actions","eee07958-bdce-4d5d-8ed5-4ee4e9568945","tool_call_message_id","7afe2886-145b-47f3-8bbe-29fcec0c2f3e","call_tool_latency_ms",300943.6627180039,"multimodal_text",[428,429,430,431,432,433,434,435,436,437,438,439,440,441,442,443,444,445,446,447,448,449,450,451,452,453,454],"Make sure to include fileciteturn3file1 in your response to cite this file, or to surface it as a link.","","Towards a Theory of Contract \r\nStephen A. Smith* \r\nA oomplece theory of cont.race law should .:inswer cwo questions. The first is an ana• \r\nl)•tk qoc:.stion :1bout the m1ture of concr~ctu.iJ oblig:uion. \\'v'bat son.s of events gjvc \r\nrise co a conrractual obliga.ciou 3nd .,..,,haL is l'he conccnc of che obligations l'lu.1..-.created? In particuJar, how are chost'. e.vemsand obligations sio1ifar or dissiuular to the \r\nL\"'\\'cnt.sand oblig:icions char arc the focus oft.Orr l:tw,unjusr enrichment l:Lw, or equity? \r\nWhere, in orher words, shoulJ contract be siruatOO on rhe map of private law? Tbe \r\nscc<.md quc:,,fon i.s a normative or justilicatOI)' qu<.\"\"Srion: how. if at aU, can conrrae< \r\nlaw be justifitr uod,ing els.,_underpin concracr law? The \r\n:m:Jycic;:md norm:uivcquestions :-uc rcl:ucd. 11.c justification for oontr:,c.m:J obliga.cioncums in pare on wha, son of a chinga comracruaJ obligatio11 is. And-chough \r\nthe point is more complex and conrroversial-our understanding of the n,mue of \r\ncon1ractual ob1igmions isdccermim.-srion--andthe. main \r\ntheme of thi.s css,1y-is, h<.lwevcr, c.isily summarized: e<.mcrac.r is like propcrcy.To \r\nundersr::.mdbcucr how contrac:c can be juscificd we should turn nor ro con or unju.s, \r\nentidunenc th<.'l◊ry but to property rheo1y. \r\nIn order to undcrsc.1ndwh)• contrac.r i.slike propcn)', and why th.is siroi..laritysupporL'-l'he view ch;ircommccs are e.s,;:emiallypromise.,;, we need co know whaL was \r\nthoug.hc to be wwng with the uaditional account of the promissory theory. and what \r\nalternatives were proposed t(> that accoum. \\Ve. begin, chen, with a brief cour of modern concracr theory. For conve.nience sake the discussion is orga11ized around differ~ \r\ncm answ-crsro the ana.lycjc qucsrioo, but, as will be <.\"videnr, the normative qucstioo \r\ni.snever far away. \r\n• I W()t1M 11kt:h) 1b:mk .M-:itk Ct'.1-scn. Didier Frecb~1e, Toi\\)' Honore. Jererur Ho,xk-r, Andrew \r\nSimcstet, Jobn fionis, Aonc de ·Moore, Nkbolils }vf<:Bridc aod Tin:aochy F..ndk1..,tt for CMlmenu on c:1r4 \r\nl~r \\'\"t,r~ion.~, llJ\\-d rhc Social Sd..:a1>0!S llJ\\d Hum.;miti-1'..f Rr..sl!.iJ<:h 0,1u,cil ofC:trui(b for fu):i.nc:W J~i~rn.n<;(\"\r\nit, pn•p-:uio&,ht( cis:ay. \r\nCopyrighted material ","",{"_395":455,"_456":473,"_458":474,"_460":461,"_462":461,"_463":464,"_89":-5},"","108 Srephen ti. Smirh \r\nCootracmal Obljg,tions as Sclf-lroposcd Ob(;gar;oo, ('J'rom;ssory'fhcor;c,') \r\nThe rradicional and orthodox view is chat che di .. ,U1b\"-1~'i'hing of contractual foatutc'-\r\nobJig:uionsis t.h:1tcht~)'arc sdf:.impoS(..\"do the promised thing. TI\\is explai1,s why, 01, \r\nthe orchodo.x vic..-w, contrac.n1:Jobligations ..ue distinet froo1 obligations i.nwrc. If I \r\nhave promised w sdl you my car I have 3n obligation to sdf you my car bcaiuse I \r\npromised co do so. But u,y obligarjou rn drive my car carefull)' so as nor ro harm you \r\n(:mdOlhcrs) cxist.s whcrhcr or nor I want to be under :>,tc:h:m oblig:icion. Torr obHgarions are imposed by law, coocracrual obligarion.s, 01) rhis view> are imposed by d\\e \r\nparm:s. \r\nThe phrase •self-imposed obligation theories' is a mouthful, so rshall rdt'.r hereafter co .such rhoori<..os as 'promissory cheoric.~'. Bur it should be kepl in mind tluoughouc t.h.-it not :JI r.hcori(.';) in thi.s c~tc.~gorycgardcomr~ccs as pwmiscs Slricdyspc:i.king. \r\n17\\ere a.re 01..her types of s:e.lf~imposedobligations apa.n froi:n prornis~, some of. \r\nwbk:h-norably agreements-have been suggesced as ahe.rnatives m the idea of con• \r\ntractS as promises. For the purposesof chis ess:iy,the di.stinctions between ditlCrent \r\nsores of :,,•df ..irnpo:,,-00obligations are. ool imporranr. The alleged vinues and vices of \r\npromissory chcorics chac arc discussed in this essay axe equally virtues aod vices-or \r\nnot as the case may bt..._if concraC1$are agreements or some ocher varianc oFsdf, \r\nimposed ob]jgacion. \r\nThe m;ijn :mrnctions of promi.ssOf)' thQ.uics of concrnct :,re well-known. The basic: \r\nand fundamental r(\"S in this ('SSay criticism$b..,s<.-d ou these or other ways in which it i.s \r\nalleged promissory theories fail co fit the fucrs--che rules and legal dccisions-t.h~,t \r\nmake up co1uracr law. £'le.I\\ \\\\lere space not a consideration~ objection ..~ of chi~ ~-ore, \r\nchougb not ins-ignifianc, arc ualikdy at the end of chcda)'to be f.ual co promissory \r\n1 Soe c,s. J. lu1,. 'Yoluout')' Oblt&3tio11s :1.nd Norouti'\"'<' Powers' in SupplC1lK'Ut:u)' ~-ol XLVJ. \r\nPrw·erdh-;gtofzh~Arit:ouli,m Sod.rry{l 972}. for ilOO.Otrary vi,:w,.$\\X:. io the s.on-t volume;, N. M:.a,:;C,mni..::k~ \r\n'Vvlunt:u'YOblig:itions :,.n,1 Noc-in:iti\\\"O! p.,,..,.cri.\r\nCopyrighted material ","",{"_395":455,"_456":471,"_458":472,"_460":461,"_462":461,"_463":464,"_89":-5},"","tqu11v·dsa 7'1.,eoryofConm1ct 109 \r\nthc.\"Orics. Ccrt:tin problematic cloccrincs--for cx:unple consideration-arc c.-qu;llly \r\npr(lb)ematic.al for oearly all plausible tJ\\eories of comracc. Ocher dO<'trin). Enforcing:1 promise, \r\nl t. Fu.I.la anl-1\\V. Ptu:l-lu-c, 11.)l<.,((.SI 'Thoe Rlfuo,;-,e in C.Oot1m: DJJ1~¢>' (11.H6) 46 ldJ.· lj S3, pam \r\nI i1npcrmlc forth-claw, But Fulf-cr himselfnowheremakes \r\n,his 1,~~im 11:$explid,ly \"-S) h;iv,:. ,.fon,e ;:ibt,,-c:.F11llcr'$ll.rrid,:.foci1i~C$ on <)()nrrxc J..1.1m~ ;:inmpc:o~tion',i.n that d\\<.y o:orc, lo fau,:t...,--oJ:k foJk.r mal-lc &ear th.at he lx:J.i,:;v«I .itwas k;,iti.wato: lo «m.i.n cir~um.smn«s to\r\nenfVC\"CC' 1)romi$C$1\"\" pr0tnisoes:1- Puller. ·c1)Clsider.i.tio11 :ind FUC\"•n· {1941) 41 C,lmn/J/11 l Nrv.799.\r\nAti.)':l,h.,;,:h(JM'. W(•1kin d1is arc:;1 h:is 00:'.1\\ 11u1ly a, i11011c1ufal a.11 Fulkt':t. ma.kci his 21uip:.1.1hy «• enfofo:fos\r\nproiniJliCSdClr~-.tbl,ughhe i.s $till n<>1uoc,qui,•ocal, Rcpte-s..-nt:itiw: is t.he folk,\":ing from ,be i.nuodw;:cio,o \r\nII) Th, ltiu: and Fa!Jof Fr«dotn q-f Co11sr,m {n. 3 ll.bovo:)4: \r\nTl,e pr<•1t'(lionormere expocl-:.lkins c-a1ui<~• {it is s-u~stcd) r.i.nk,:_,qu:,llywill. lhe pn>tccriooorrcstirut!l,n intl!tcsts (arisi.ni from bc1K61-b:isied lt.'lbllitr)o, tdfancl! illlcrcsu{Mising from rdiao,;o.b:isc-d\r\nli:1bilicy}. A 1)(:l\"S(ln who~ cpn;;t1100ns arc;di:sappoi.nro:d, bur wbo sl1ffm no p,:.w.ni,acy or01bo:.rl06s'1-oo,\r\nthe f:.ilure co ~rrorm a pro111i3t'.1'-u surely ;i re:briwlywe:il. tl-;iimf<>toompbii,t or rcdr<'$$. \r\n'fbc dc::irc.st:irti-cuhuionsof tl'M:llll,r-.11llhjcafon 10 promimry 1hooriesar-c fouo0irio.oof ",{"_395":455,"_456":469,"_458":470,"_460":461,"_462":461,"_463":464,"_89":-5},"","110 Srephen ti. Smirh \r\non this vit..-w,is like enforcing:, duty t.o be ch:iritnble. \\\\7hcn a promise is broken, rJic \r\nproinisee is ofreo harmed as a resulc of having detrime,n-alJyrelied 01) the promise. \r\nBur in enforcing .i prootiscqua prqmise, char harm i.sirrdcvam. A proo1issoryobligation exi.stS regardless of whether che promisee has rclied--a.nd often che promisec \r\nwill noc h.:ive relied {ot' will h.:ive rdied to an ex-tent les::s than thC'. value of the promise). \r\nThu.s. thc objcetion goes, ch,~ c;ontcnt of rh:u ob1ig:icio.n rn:1y bt~, :ind often is, :1pure \r\nor partial obligation LO beneflr aoothcr. Enfordng ~uch an obligaUon, like enforcing \r\ncharity, is not a proper funcrion of the law {or ac least not a proper function of private 1aw)-and this is so whether one regards rhc b.w from a utilitarian or right.s-b:as«I \r\nper.speSc:ription of the law-an answer ro rhe analytic questjo1)o---o(hat the dt ... criptjon.portrays the l:1w as doing oorncrhiog illegicirnate? Why assumechc law is mor.iJly juscjfied?This is a question-a rtu·her large quc.-.,ion--of general jurisprudenal'<:r \r\nor lruer degree e.nfoK'e obligacionsco benefit ochers, bur such ob~gacions are, and are \r\nclearly rccog.niz(.-d tobe, cxccpcions co chc gcnernl rule that we a1e under no legal \r\ndutiest<>bencfil our neighbours. There is no gene.ml or even limiteddULy tO re.~c.ueat \r\ncommon law. The que..~cion. chen, is why shouJd contra.er l.:iw be ditlercnt (keeping \r\nin mind that comc:iccuaJobligarionsarc frcqucod}• owed co complete scra.ngcl.'S), \r\nStated l'hLL-., rhe 'inoraJ' objectioo is also all 'inconsisrenc)' objection, namely that \r\npromissory thc<.lri(,'S of conrract arc inadequate, since they suppose char conrracrual \r\noblig-.uionsare incons.isrent with the widd)• and firmly hcld legal principle chat individuals are not liable for failur<.>s rn be.nefic ochers.\r\n7 J.S.MiU, 1be ,u-i~n:iro, of the 'Mm, p,ri.ociplc•,was of counc :i u1ili1111fan, bu1 1he prin-d1>lc CJ.n\r\n(!as;ilyIx, and ofu.:o h3S b«n, cxpr~~ io Kanti;IJ) l~l•::iligc; ~ c,g, Ol-ruon, u. Sabov<). Jn Kantia.n fa.n4 \r\ng11.i:tte,the rclevimr distin~io,n is bet\"'·c-cn 111i~:mc:e. which rhc l;i,w m;,i,y rq:.ul:ue, :.nd 1)t1n-te:1g,n«. \r\nwhich dx: l2win:iy 1l(1o1 •\\\"g.ul:m,\" ..O,id1isview,b1'Clki1\\t;2 pro1niseif\"\" promise U (t01l-fca5:u)CC', r.uha lhan\r\nmisfo:isaocc-~lx-.::iusc it dl1..,;no, i.o\\-olvc in&i.nging: :inolhl\"1'5rights to bis or bcr prop1,,\"fty orbolmy \r\ninrq;rity. Thus kc,:.pi11g1>romi.sa is merdy :\\11 eth.i..1.J dory cir \"irtuc: r.uba dun :, lcg:1\\ Jury. This U nl.l( ro \r\nJer,y 1h:1i 1here :ire retperuble -:irg.unw:nfll furlh~ enf.:m:uuem of nl()r.1Ji1y ~ such in pa.nic~1far, Jimi1c-d\r\n\\1,--ays: $('(' e.g. It Gc:Oi\\,.\"t\", M.aliing Mm J!,,f,md ( 199,). h is difficult «> ch.ink. b,:,wc,.x-r, ,;f :iny pbusib-lc \r\nJcfcri<;(d a t,'\\:'J)Cr-.i.1 lhi(}\"to bcmdi.t otb.cn of tbc son th.1t,:.L'SSVJ.Jti.ng We.b»01~plU)cipk objcm,.111 is l'.Ot4\r\nr~i. would be rtec(l«! 10 supporc the e11f'or«111enc of l)l'OllliSt'S (/ll.,'1.promh,es. \r\nCopyrighted material ","",{"_395":455,"_456":467,"_458":468,"_460":461,"_462":461,"_463":464,"_89":-5},"","tqu11v·dsa 7'1.,eory ofConm1ct l I I \r\nAc this poinr che question m:t)' be rcphrasal from 'why :LS:mmcthe law is mo..iV to \r\n'.;vhy a:,,-swne the law is coherenr'~ This brio~ us to the second ob:,,-erqarion. No \r\nas!l1.1rupcion ca.n~ made when doing concract chcory that the law is in fact moral or \r\ncoherent. Neven:hdess. in S-0f-aras an im-erprernli js at l<>asr of che son that might be regarded by parridpancs \r\nin the practice a.scohcrcoc :;ind morally juscj6cd.8 Making sense of the Jaw 01<.\"\"a.ns, \r\nin.1eralia,makjng sense of the w3y tl13t law is understood from l'he in.side, by panic~ \r\nipant.s-and Jawis unde.rstood fron1 che inside a... coherenr and ju.,;-cifo.-d. The law ruay \r\nnoc cum out t() be cxplicabh: in rhis w:1y-it m:.t)' in fucr be :1 chaotic collec..-i:ion of \r\nunjustified de-c.isions and rules-hut dlese:trch for imeUigihle-order is and always has \r\nb<.-cnthe criterion <.lfsucccss for those proposing tbi;:ories <.lflaw.The precise type and \r\nstrength of the link re<1uire.~iLi\\•ist alike, do acb1owlcdg.:.._chac a completely value~frce de..-;c.Tipl·ion\r\noflaw is e.ither an. impossibi~t)' or oflittle incerc.,;r co scholars. \r\nPromi.ssorytheories of concract remain popular amongst concr:ict lawyers, buc sur• \r\npri.singlyfow anempcs have been made ro rebu[ i:he 1noral objection co such thooris \r\nC(Jntr.utns Promise. ll) Fried does not menliMaicCormiGk.,., 1 :ibo~--c: SIC(' algo1'.SCl!oloo. 'l'rnmis.t·.s a1l\\\"I l''roctk,·l ( 1990) 19 Phi/(liop/)16 Pr1blit \r\nAjfoinJ99. \r\n10 C. Pried. (A,1,m,;: !1Sl'ro\"1l1t:(1981)clu1). 2. '' lbM. 7-8. \r\nCopyrighted material ","",{"_395":455,"_456":465,"_458":466,"_460":461,"_462":461,"_463":464,"_89":-5},"","112 Srephen ti. Smirh \r\nmor:llly indiffcrcnt?'ll Fried provides chc following !ntmm:iry of hi.s :mswcr to rJic \r\nmoral obj«cio1): \r\n·ncre exists;1.convention dl.n clc.Jincs the pr-.acticc of promi.o;ing:md ir.s cmailmc.nrs.·n,is convenrion provide; :t w:iy rh:n :1 l)CJ$01l m:1ycrc:t(C e:fa legally enforccahle dury) co break a promise. \r\nTh<.:fust cwo prop,0$itions-rhat promising h-as a conventional meaning and that \r\npan of this memins is 1hi1c making a promise creates ccrt:1in expectations-arc rd:1-\r\ntivdy u1\\concroversial, atleast i.n the general te.nns in whidt rhey are aJvaJ\\ced. But \r\nthc..;i' c.lcadyare in.sufficient to suppon a legaJ dmy co keep a promise. The.re a.re 01.iny \r\nways of crc-aling expc-ct3rion.s that do not suppon legal ecial about \r\nthose expectations. Undersmod in its normal sense ofcexpected co happen', the only \r\nson of'cxpc..·1'L~idc-r an\r\nalcoholic's promise m scay sober--buc even ignoring this qualihcarjon, it seems dear \r\nchac frk-d is nor rcfordog t<>expec.T.ltionsof chis son. The onJ)• significance of chcsral'i.sticallikelihood l'hat a f>l'<)misor will do a-. promisedi..-.that che promi-.ce (and 0111-\r\ncrs) ma)' rdy upon chose c.xpe.ccaclons. Whcrhc.~ror not thac exists a general \r\noblig:uionnot co let peopledown in whom you ha,·c inducal assumptions about how \r\nyou wiU act (something Fried de.1\\ies''). such an obligation is nor an obliga(ioo to \r\nkeep a prom.isc. As Fticxl himself srn.:sscs, 1\r\n' promissory obligations are diA-<:.renc from\r\ninduced-reliance obligations because they bind regardless of whether rhc promise.: \r\nhas relied (and, we u,ay add, they also differ in chat expocracions can be induced other \r\nthan b)' ma.king promises). An oblig;ation co en.sure; the reliability ofindt1c<.-d :1ssuo,pl'ions is a. rdiaJ\\ce..-based oblib,.-ation. oo, a. ptoo,ise-bascd obligal'ion. \r\n\\'<'bich 'crp<.-ccations', rbco, i.s Fried referring to in chc quoted pass.-gc? It appears \r\nthat by 't.xp1..-cr:11.lons' Fried means bdidS about che mor:ll effcct.S of making a \r\npromise. ln particular, what is reJe.,.anc aboul a promise for Fried is chat i( creates d\\e \r\n•l C. Fri,-d, Co11tr,w ,01Pnmda(l98l) CNlp. 9. u Ibid.Ii. h Jbid.10-tl. 1\r\n\" Ibid. \r\nCopyrighted material ","",{"_395":455,"_456":457,"_458":459,"_460":461,"_462":461,"_463":464,"_89":-5},"","tqu11v·dsa 7'1.,eory ofConm1ct l I 3 \r\nbelief ch:1c tJic person ma.king chc promise is under :, mornl obligation tO kcc.p die \r\npr(lmise. 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